BACTERIAL COLONIZATION ON HUMAN SKIN

ABSTRACT

The surface of human body were Scrubs with moistened swab stick, these was used to streaked the surface of prepared nutrient agar for bacterial growth and incubated at an appropriate temperature. The bacterial isolated were identified to be Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogene and Klebsiella aurogene.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

A diverse microbial flora is associated with the skin and mucous membrane of every human being from shortly after birth until death. The human body which contains about 1013 cells routinely harbors about 1014 bacteria. This bacterial population constitutes the normal microbial flora. The normal microbial flora is relatively stable with specific genera populating various body regions during particular periods in an individual’s life. Tannock (1995).

Microorganisms of the normal flora may aid the host [By competing for micro-environment more effectively than such pathogens Salmonella Spp or by producing nutrients that the host can use. It may harm the host by causing dental caries, abscesses or other infectious diseases or it may exist as commercials by inhabiting the host for long periods without causing detectable harm or benefits. Even though most elements of the normal microbial flora inhabiting the human skin, nails, eyes, genitalia and gastrointestinal tract are harmless in healthy individuals, these organisms frequently cause disease in compromised hosts.

The normal flora in human usually develops in an orderly sequence, after birth leading to the stable populations of bacteria that made up the normal adult flora. The main factor determining the composition of the normal flora in a body region is the nature of the local environment which is determined by pH, temperature, redox potential, oxygen, water and nutrient levels. Other factors such as peristalsis, saliva hysozyme secretion and secretion of immunoglobulin also play roles in flora control. The local environment is like a concern to in which one principal instrument usually dominates. For example, an infact begins to contact organisms as it moves through the birth canal. A gram positive population [Bifido bacteria] predominates in the gastrointestinal tract early in life. If the infant is breast-fed. This bacterial population is reduced and displaced some what by a gram negative flora [Entero bacteriaceae] when the baby is bottle feel. The type of liquid diet provided to the infant is the principal instrument of this flora controls, immunoglobulins and perhaps other element is breast milk may also be important

THE PRODUCTION OF INDUSTRIAL PAINT (EMULSION PAINT)

 

CHAPTER ONE

1.0     INTRODUCTION

1.1     BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

According to Osai Yaw Ababio (1990), new school chemistry, “emulsion is a colloidal system in which a liquid is dispersed in another liquid”, or emulsion is a two-phase system containing two immiscible liquid to which an emulsifier is added. It can also be seen as a very fine dispersion of one liquid in another with which it is immiscible.

Colloids can take on the appearance of solid, liquid or gasses, although there are invariable mixtures of some kind. Colloidal particles are generally between 5 and 1000nm in diameter, this means that they are much larger than atoms or small molecules such as water. A colloidal system is made up of two phases; the continuous phase and the disperse phase. The continuous phase carries the disperse phase.

However, paint is a word used to describe the dispersion of pigment in water or organic solvent. Therefore, emulsion paint is a water-based paint. This means that water is the solvent or medium in which all other materials are dissolved in. emulsion paint are also known as water thinned paint and it is used extensively as interior and exterior flat wall coating.

Emulsion paint has distinctive and excellent properties, which made it different from other paints whose media, may be organic solvent. These properties include;

1)      Resistance to atmospheric moisture content

2)      Durability

3)      It is easy to apply and dries quickly.

1.2     STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Many produces of emulsion paints produce sub-standard quality as a result of not using right materials and compound. This is as a result of the producer’s need for higher profit; this sub-standard emulsion paint may not meet the need of the consumers in terms of durability and resistance to corrosion.

The production of emulsion paint that is acidic is dangerous as it leads to the destabilization of the paint. The availability of PH meter; an instrument used to measure the degree of acidity and alkanity of a medium is problem.

1.3     AIMS AND OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The problems of atmospheric corrosion have been a challenge to mankind as it results in heavy economic losses. However, the research work is aimed at developing paint formulation, which will be used to produce paints that can with stand corrosion within our environment. The emulsion paint can be used as both interior and exterior house paint, and also the emulsion paint should be able to meet the taste of the users in terms of durability and resistance to atmospheric condition. This will curb the menace of sub-standard emulsion paint.

1.4     SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The research work is important because paints this days, are not durable, do not dry easily and cannot with stand the moisture content of the atmosphere. However, this research work will produce paint that is durable, easy to dry and can with stand corrosion.

It will provide an effective method of producing emulsion paint that will be of desired quality to the producers.

It will provide a general knowledge on the properties of emulsion paint, the materials or compound involve in the production of the paint and the conditions that with destabilized it.

It is also, hopped that this research work and those already carried out will help immensely to the advancement in paint technology.

1.5     HYPOTHESIS

H1:     Emulsion paint can be produced by dispersion of various compounds in water.

Ho:     Emulsion paint cannot be produced with organic solvent as the medium.    

1.6     LIMITATION

The research work is limited in scope to emulsion paint, its properties, method of production, and the materials use for the production of emulsion

EFFECT OF GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION IN NIGERIA (Impact of septic tanks distances to wells)

ANALYSIS OF THE USE OF SENTENCE STRESS AMONG SELECTED UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS OF THE OBAFEMI AWOLOWO UNIVERSITY ILE IFE

1. INTRODUCTION

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary liver cancer. It accounts for 60% of all cancer world wide (Melissa 2004). The most significance cause is the presence of cirrhosis. HCC has unique geographic sex, age distribution that are likely determined by specific actiology factor. It’s distribution also varies among ethnic group within the same country (Munoz 1989). A high incidence of hepatitis B and C may have been an important factor contributing to the development of liver disease (HCC and Cirrhosis) in south eastern Nigeria. However, a recent trend which reveals an increase in cases of liver cirrhosis and hepatitis in our environment suggest that there could be other contributory factors perculiar to our environment besides hepatitis B and C which could be possible explanation to the recent trend. In so doing, it would be necessary to look into the various predisposing/causative factors of chronic hepatitis which could lead to increased cases of liver cirrhosis and HCC in our environment. The risk of developing HCC differs depending on the cause of cirrhosis. For example, cirrhosis due to hepatitis B has a high risk of leading to HCC while the risk of HCC in people with primary biliary cirrhosis, although present is very low. All these human hepatitis viruses are RNA viruses except for hepatitis B virus, which is a DNA virus. Although these viruses can be distinguished by their molecular and antigenic properties, all types of viral hepatitis produce clinically similar illnesses. These range from asymptomatic and unapparent to fulminant and fatal acute infections common to all types, on one hand, and from subclinical persistent infections to rapidly progressive liver disease with cirrhosis and even hepatocullular carcinoma (HCC), common to the blood-borne types (HBV and HCV). Without specific virological test, it is not possible to determine which hepatitis virus is responsible for a case of hepatitis. (Kathleen park et al., 2004).

AIM

· To analyze the αfetoprotein level in hepatits patient as an aid in assessing the degree in which it degenerate to HCC

PREVALENCE STUDY OF HEPATITIS B (AUSTRALIAN ANTIGEN) AMONG PATIENT IN NATIONAL ORTHOPEDIAE HOSPITAL ENUGU

ABSTRACT

The prevalence of viral hepatitis B among patients in National Orthopedic Hospital Enugu was studied. The samples comprised that of men , woman and children 200 in numbers, all patient of orthopedic Hospital Enugu. Laboratory investigation done were this HBs tested which 110 patient out of the 200 patients tested positive, and liver function tests found abnormal in almost all the patients that tested positive to HBsAG routine test. The commonest clinical presentations were fever and jaundice seen in Jo patient out of the 110 patients. The infection was highest amongst young adult 21-30 years of age. This accounted for 17.5% of the positive patients population it was lowest amongst children 1-10 and old people 60-70 which made up 5% of the infected population. The study also gave the general view of the group of individual affected whether children or adult, and the wid expired of the repetitious B. Hepatitis B one of the major cause of human suffering in the world despite a though understanding of its transmission and prevention and control by use of vaccine was found to be prevalent in National Orthopedic Hospital Enugu among the patients.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO HEPATITIS B

Viral hepatitis is a disease as old as the history of Medicine. Hepatitis was described in the Babylonian Talmud in the fifty century BC, and was referred to by Hippocratic over 2000 years ago. Despite this ancient knowledge, it was not until 1963, that the first human Repetitious virus was isolated, Hepatitis B. This was followed quickly by the purification of Hepatitis A in 1973, and more recently by the isolation of viruses C, D, E and G. These viruses are known to infect the human liver (Anderson et al; 2001).

However, there are more than twenty other viruses, which infect the human liver. These are not considered “Repatitis viruses” as these other viruses tend to infect organs other than the liver more seriously’. These include common viruses such as Cytomegalovirus (CMV), Mumps, Rubella, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) as well as rare ones such as Rassa fever and yellow fever viruses.

Any infection that results in inflammation of the liver is called Repatitis (Greek Repaticus, liver). Incidentally, not all “hepatitis” is caused by viruses. “HEPATITIS” means “inflammation of the liver”, and can be caused also by other types of infection (bacteria fungi etc); toxic drugs; poisons; alcoholism and so on (Drexott etal; 2005).

But of interest is one Repatitis virus – one of the most common infections diseases, causing an estimated 1.5millon deaths world wide each year – Hepatitis B. Hepatitis B is caused by the Repatitis B virus (HBV), a double – stranded circular DNA virus of complex structure. Hbv is class ivied as an orthoropadnavirus within the family hepadnaviridae. HBV was originally recognized as the age responsible or serum Repatitis the most common form of partially transmitted viral Repatitis and an import cause of acute and chronic infection of the liver. This why hepatitis b is some times called seum Repatitis. The virus was formerly and anilines referred to as Australian antigen. The reason being that it was first isolated room the blood of an Australian aborogie and is associated with HBV. (procott et al 2005.

Hepatitis B remain one of the major cause of human suffering in the world despite a through understanding of its transmission and prevention. Serum form undivided infected with hepatitis B contains three district antigen particles: a spherical 22nm particle, a 42 nm spherical particle ( counting DNA and DNA polymer able) called the Dane particle, and tubular or filamentous particles that vary in length. The small spherical and tubular particles are the unassembled component of the Dane particle- the infective form of the virus. The unassembled particles. Contain hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) whose presence in the blood is (a) an indicator of Repatitis B infection (b) the basis for the large scale screening of blood for the hepatitis B virus, and (c) the basis for the first vaccine for human use developed by recombinant DNA technology (Evans, 1997

The Hepatitis B virus is normally transmitted through blood transfusion, contaminated equipment, drug users unsterile needles, or any body secretion (saliva, soren, sweat, breast milk, urine) The virus also can pass from the blood of an infected mother through the placenta to infect the fetus. Each year an estimated 200, 000 people in Nigeria are infected with Australian Antigen (HBV) about 1000 person die yearly from hepatitis related cirrhosis and about 5000 die from HBV related liver cancer. (HBV is second only to tobacco as a known cause of rumen cancer). Worldwide, HBV infects over 200 million people (Schlesinger & Schlesinger, 2001). The clinccal signs of Repatitis B vary widely, most cases are symptomless. However, sometime fever, loss of appetite, abominal discomfort, nausea, fatigue, and other symptoms gradually appear following an incubation period of 1 to 3 months. The virus infects liver Hepatic cells and causes liver tissue degeneration and the release of liver associated enzymes (transaminases) into the blood team. This is followed by jaundice, the accumulation of bilirubin (a breakdown product of raemoglobin in the skin and other tissue with a resulting yellow appears. The distinctive yellow jaundice the Hepatitis B usually imparts to its victims skin has made it an rasity detectable disease through recorded history. Frequently, acute hepatitis B in anicteric and symptomatic, although acute liver failure may develop. The virus persists in about 10 percent of infected immouno compent adults, and in as many 90 percent of infants infect peninatally depending on the ethnic group of the mother. About 350 million people worldwide are persistent carries of hepatitis B. actually one in twenty infection results in chronic hepatitis, defined as persistent hepatitis virus six mouths after the onset of the acute illness. Chronic HBV infection can be entirely begin with normal liver blood tests (“Chronic Carrier State”) or may be an aggressive inflammatory process (“Chronic active hepatitis”), which can lead to severe scarring (“Cirrhosis).

Approximately 25 percent of all patients with chronic hepatitis will progress to cirrhosis and about 20 percent of those with cirrhosis will develop hepatocellular carcinoma. That is to say, the risk of liver cancer (hepatoma) is high in cirrhosis caused by HBV.

Hepatocellular carcinoma is one of the most common cancers worldwide (Seeger & manor; 2000)

During the first phase of chronicity, virus replication continues in the liver and replicative intermediates of the viral genome may be detected in DNA extracted from liver hiopsies. Makers of virus replication in serum include HBVDNA (this indicated virus presence and activity), DNA polymerize (determines the presence of HBVDNA in liver cell, and a soluble antigen, hepatition.be antigen (\HbeAG), which is secreted by productively infected hepatocytes. In those infected at a very going age this phase may persist for life but, more usually, virus levels decline over time. Eventually, in most individuals, there is immune clearance of infected hepatocytes associated with seroconverision low replication, the viral senome may integrate into the chromosomal DNA of some hepatocytes and these cells may persist and expand closely. Rarely , seroconversion to anti-HBs follows clearance of virus replication but, more frequently, HBSAg persists during a second phase of chronicity as a result of the expression of integrated viral DNA.

VIRAL REPLICATION

With respect to replication of the HBV, the fundamental process of viral infection is the expression of the viral replication cycle in a rost cell. The steps for the infection process involving HBV usually include the following:

Enter a host

· contact and enter susceptible cell.

· Replicate within the cell.

· Sprea d to adjacent cells.

· Cause cellular injury.

· Engender a host immune response

· Be either cleared from the body of the host, establish a presistnt infection , or kill the host.

· Be shed back into the environment (prexote it al; 2005).

VIRAL SPREAD

Mechanisms of viral spread very, but the most roates include bloodstream. The presence of viruses in the blood is called VIREAMA>HBV is spread through blood, body secretion, needles, placenta as well as sexually. This os to say that transmission as through parental routes. Therefore, transmission of HBV can occur from person to person as a result of transfer of blood by any prouder which breaks the skin or mucous members HBV spread mainly parentally, in most cases seen in adults , HBs (Australian Antigen) has been identified in almost every body fluid f infected persons- saliva tears semen, cerebrospinal fluid, ascetic fluid, breast milk synovial fluid, gastric juice, urine and rarely in faces. This disease is, therefore, a major occupational hazard of medical personnel. It is commonly seen in people who receive multiple blood transfusion or blood product intravenous drug abusers, homosexuals and the sexually promiscuous.

1. PURPOSE OF STUDY

The need for study can never be over emphases having considered the above, this study serves the following purpose or objectives.

1. To obtain a general view of the group of individual affected whether children or adults.

2. To show circumstances which dispose to viral hepatitis and suggest means of reducing the incidence.

3. To review the management of these patients with regards to vestigation done and treatment.

4. To understand the complex or exorbitant nature of the structure of the hepatitis B virus as well as the debilitating effect it has on the patient

5. Also compare and contrast primary data from this study with secondary from the library

6. To how rate of progression to chronicity as well as make known the daily activities that will not result in contacting HBV.

2. SIGNIFIGANCE OF STUDY

This study done to known the existence or widespread of this disease among patience in Nation Orthopedic Hospital Enugu. Or to understand and show the prevalent Hospital in question .the significance of this study can never be over emphasicum this is because in developing countries such as HBV is indisputable essential in the life of that country especially in their hospitals. Many children are infected by hepatitis B virus at on early age a significant portion of apparently healthy individual are chronic carriers of HBsAg, that is the Australia Antign. The significance of this study is seen in the light of having a better knowledge and understanding or better still widening our scope of the chronically and pathogenically of HBV.

1. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

A study of this nature surely must have problem which result in it. Hepatitis B is a viral disease that is spread through all body fluids, that is to say that one can contact this disease by exchange to body fluid with infected person. Looking at our society and hospital there are cases where by unscreened blood is transfixed to a patient case of multiple sex partner people having unprotected sex, making use of sharp objects without any care. All these dispose to viral hepatitis B. and gives risk to a study of such .

1. LIMITATON/ SCOPE OF STUDY

As a result of time factor, the scope of this study was narrowed down to fit Witter the time limit. Due to this fact, this study was lenicted only among patients in National Orthopedic Hospital Enugu. There fore, the scope or the delimitation, which infect in the area of coverage of this study is National Orthopedic Hospital Enugu.

1. HYPOTHESIS

H0 Hepatitis B is prevalent among patients in National Orthopedic

Hospital Enugu.

H1 Hepatitis B is not prevalent among patients in National

Orthopedic Hospital Enugu.

INVESTIGATE THE MICROBIAL CONTENT OF SOME BOLTED SOFT DRIVELS SOLD IN ENUGU INTERLOPES

ABSTRACT

This work was done in order to investigate the microbial content of some bolted soft drivels sold in Enugu interlopes. Soft drink are consumed in large quantities by the different age groups, adult and children of different class of people all over the state. This is aided by the general availability of these drink almost every place roleve people gather for work or recreational activities. It is the appropriate to subject these soft drinks to some kind of investigation by isolation and characterizing the microorganism found.

Simple Grows staining and biochemical test method were employed to isolate and identify the organisms found different bacterial and feast were identified these organisms include Fvlavobacterium spp. Bacillus Eschericjhism coli, Enteribacter arccosines Micro coccusroseus Micrococcus various Bacillus subtitles Aciuetobacter iwoffi, Micrococcus inteus Bacillus polymea, flavobacterium, rigeuse sacchenomyces, conevisciae klurenomyce sff, Torulopsis spp, cadida valida Geotrichuin candidium, sacchanoyces, carlbergersis cryptococus, albidus, Hausennlsa spp etc.

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Soft drinks were defined by Harry and Wilbert (1984) as a class of non alcoholic beverages which may be divided into two classes carbondrate soft drinks some time referred to as Soda ;’soda pop “etc) and still or non- carbondrate soft drinks. soft drinks in general contains 86 to 92% water, 7 to 10% nutrient sweetbriers, carbodioxide (if present) acid and flavoring. The food and drug administration standard of identity for carbonated soft drink define them as a class of beverage made by absorbing carbodiocide in potable water. The amount of carbonhdioxide used is not less than that which well be absorbed by the beverage at a pressure of one atmosphere and a temperature of 60F. these drinks contain no alcohol, or only such alcohol (not in excess of 0.5% by weight of the finished beverage) as is contributed by the flavoring ingredient that may be use in carbonated soft drinks in such properties are reasonable required to accomplish their intruded effects. These include nutritive sweeteners flavoring ingredient natural and antificial colour additive acidifying agent buffering agent emulsifying stabilizing or viscosity producing agent foaming agent caffeine and chemical preservatives the beginning of the carbonated beverage (soft) drinks) as recorded by Resrosier (1977) date back to the closing years of the eighteen (18th ) century

Morris (1959) defined micro organisms as plant or animal organisms of microscopic or submicroscopic dimensions. Plant microorganisms are generally classified into three major groups, namely fungi bacteria and Algae as for as beverage manfacture is concerned the fungi are the most important group of spoilage organisms because yeast and mould belong to this group. The protozoa are the most important of the animal microorganisms.

Actually individual microorganisms are microscopic in size they can form colonies clouds precipitates sediments and scums with time and these are visible to the naked eyes and are the direct signs of the presence of microorganisms.

The microbiological safety and ratability of the diverse type of soft drinks products depend on their formulation (including) the use of chemical preservative carbonation low PH values and pasteurization) this was stated by ganglion (1982). Batchelor (1985) put it that the inter related environmental factors that determine the microbial load of product or the susceptibility of a product to microbial spoilage are intrinsic and Extrinsic factors.

Intrinsic factor are derived from the product and its formulation according to pauezai comments they are not easy to change Extrinsic factor are variable introduced during processing packaging distribution and storage. They should be easier to change and control. Girighano further recorded that control should be by application of the air Hazard Analysis critical Control point (HACCP) system to raw material formulating processing condition and packaging examples of such control would be :

a. Measurement of temperature during heat treatment of pasteurized product

b. Measurement of carbonation level by routine monvtorning of carbendioxide pressures in carbonated products

c. Measurement of pH water activity product viscosity and preservatives in combination with other formulation parameters

d. Maintenance of good hygienic practice to prevent the building up of spoilage organisms on the plant equipment and in the production areas.

Most microbiological problem arise because of poor quality of raw material (eg fruit concentrates sugar and syrup) poor processing hygiene packaging material and storage condition and these lead to over coming of the preservation system applied drinking manufactures or production of the beverages (soft drinks) by the micro organisms.
JUSTIFICATION

Soft drink are consumed in large quantities by the massed both male and female cutting across different age group adult and children of different classes of people all oven the state. This is aided by the general availability of these drinks almost every place where people gather for work or recreational activities so it is necessary to let the people taking this soft drinks know the consequences of leaving their drink open there by allowing some microorganisms which grow in the presence of air (acropea or acrophile organisms) to gain their way into the drink. Also for then to know the implicated organism in the soft drink thereby helping them to reduce their soft drink intake.
AIM AND OBJECTIVES

Aim and objective of this project is to investigation the microbial content of bottled soft drinks by:

i. Isolating the microorganisms present in them

ii. Identify and characterize the microorganisms present

HYPOTHESES:

H0 Yeast and would are the only organisms implicated and identified in the microbiological charateristion of the three brand of soft drinks.

H1 Yeast and mould are the only organisms implicated and identified in the microbiological characterization of the three brand of soft drink, bacteria were also implicated and identified.
LIMITATION

This study was limited to Enugu metropolis and three leading and most consumed soft drink this was due to economic and transportation difficulties encountered in the course of the study.

DETERMINATION OF CHLORINE CONTENT IN WATER FROM AJALLI SOURCE

ABSTRACT

Determination of the chlorine content in water from Ajali sources was carried out in the laboratory. Chlorination has been a method for the treatment of drinking water and chlorine being an excellent disinfectant is the sole element for this practice. The world health organization (WHO) and National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC) set out standard chlorine adequate for drinking water which is given as 200mg/l. This research work is based on the determination of chlorine content in raw Ajali water, treated reservoir water and Tap water. For each five samples were collected and analyzed using Mohr Method and the result for the average chlorine contents are 105.79mg/l for the Ajali raw mater, 129.70mg/l for reservoir and tap water is 178.63mg/l. In all, the results show that they correspond to the WHO/NAFDAC standard for chlorine content in drinking water.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

` Chlorine is a greenish-yellow gas that dissolves easily in water. It has a pungent, noxious colour that some people can perceive smell at concentrations above 0.3 part permillion. Chlorine is an excellent disinfectant commonly added to drinking water supplies to kill harmful micro-organism. Chlorine is not only an effective disinfectant but it also reacts with ammoniamiron and other metal s and some organic compounds to improve overall water quality (white, 2000).

In parts of the world when chlorine is not added to drinking water, thousands of people die each day from waterbone disease like typhoid and cholera according to (Darnail 1999). However, the addition of chlorine in water has its limitations but its dangers, are relatively shortlived compared to the dangers of most other highly poisonous substances. Rideal et al, (2005) suggests that this is because chlorine reacts quickly with other substance in after (and forms combined chlorine) or escapes as a gas into the atmosphere. The free chlorine test measures only the amount of free or dissolved chlorine in water, but the total chlorine test measures both free and combined of chlorine.

According to Richardson et al (2007), if the water contains a lot of decaying materials, free chlorine can combine with them to form disinfection –by- products like tribhalomethanes. Though there is a limit to the use of chlorine as negative results are possible with the addition of too odour in water are often enhanced.

Fair et al, (2000) states that less than one half (0.5mg/L) of free chlorine is needed to kill bacterial without causing water to smell or taste unpleasant. Most people cannot detect the presence of chlorine on water amount (1.0mg/l). although 1.0mg/l chlorine in water is not harmful to people, it does cause problems to fish and other aquatic animals when they are expose to it over along period of time. It is very important for water suppliers to monitor closely the level of chlorine present in the water (Hodges 1997).

RISK OF WATERBORNE DISEASE

Where adequate water treatment is not readily available, the impact on public health can be devastating (White, 2002), would. Worldwide, about 1.2 billion people lack access to safe drinking water and twice that number may have adequate sanitation (Christian et al, 2001). As a result the World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 3.4 million people mostly children die, every year from water related diseases. Ridealetal (2005). Even where treatment is widely practiced constant vigilance is required to guard against waterborne disease outbreaks.

Well known pathogens such as Ecoli are easily controlled with chlorination but can cause deadly outbreak give condition if inadequate or disinfection (Richardson, et al 2007). Some emerging pathogens like osporiolianare resistance to chlorination and can appear even in high quality water supplies. Cryptosporidium was the cause of the longest reported drink water in United state (Craun et al, 2002). The new regulation from U.S Environmental Protection Agency will require water system to monitor cryptosporidium and adopt a range of treatment options based on source water cryptosporidium concentrations. Most water systems are expected to meet EPA requirement while continuing to use chlorination.

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

There has been high prevalence of water borne disease in
Enugu metropolis judging from the hospital statistics hence the need to know if the cause has been from the method of water treatment employed in the purification of drinking water supplied to the municipality.

1.3 AIMS OF THE STUDY

· To determine the chlorine content to water from Ajalli water source.

· To compare the chlorine content in the drinking water in Enugu metropolis with World Health Organization standard.

· The study will also evaluate the effect of bad water chlorination and the harms of indisinfecter drinking water.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCES OF THESTUDY

This research work is meant to elucidate the actual concentration of chlorine in Enugu drinking water and to make known the processes or steps taken in the treatment of the water. Also to establish whether some prevalent disease could be traced to the way drinking water in Enugu is treated.

1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This research work is limited to the determination of the chlorine content in raw Ajalli water source the treatment of water and the tap water within Enugu

BACTERIAL COLONIZATION ON HUMAN SKIN

ABSTRACT

The surface of human body were Scrubs with moistened swab stick, these was used to streaked the surface of prepared nutrient agar for bacterial growth and incubated at an appropriate temperature. The bacterial isolated were identified to be Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogene and Klebsiella aurogene.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

A diverse microbial flora is associated with the skin and mucous membrane of every human being from shortly after birth until death. The human body which contains about 1013 cells routinely harbors about 1014 bacteria. This bacterial population constitutes the normal microbial flora. The normal microbial flora is relatively stable with specific genera populating various body regions during particular periods in an individual’s life. Tannock (1995).

Microorganisms of the normal flora may aid the host [By competing for micro-environment more effectively than such pathogens Salmonella Spp or by producing nutrients that the host can use. It may harm the host by causing dental caries, abscesses or other infectious diseases or it may exist as commercials by inhabiting the host for long periods without causing detectable harm or benefits. Even though most elements of the normal microbial flora inhabiting the human skin, nails, eyes, genitalia and gastrointestinal tract are harmless in healthy individuals, these organisms frequently cause disease in compromised hosts.

The normal flora in human usually develops in an orderly sequence, after birth leading to the stable populations of bacteria that made up the normal adult flora. The main factor determining the composition of the normal flora in a body region is the nature of the local environment which is determined by pH, temperature, redox potential, oxygen, water and nutrient levels. Other factors such as peristalsis, saliva hysozyme secretion and secretion of immunoglobulin also play roles in flora control. The local environment is like a concern to in which one principal instrument usually dominates. For example, an infact begins to contact organisms as it moves through the birth canal. A gram positive population [Bifido bacteria] predominates in the gastrointestinal tract early in life. If the infant is breast-fed. This bacterial population is reduced and displaced some what by a gram negative flora [Entero bacteriaceae] when the baby is bottle feel. The type of liquid diet provided to the infant is the principal instrument of this flora controls, immunoglobulins and perhaps other element is breast milk may also be important.

THE PRODUCTION OF LAUNDRY STARCH FROM CASSAVA TUBERS

ABSTRACT

This work is aimed at the production of laundry starch, using locally sourced raw material (cassava tuber), by extraction of the starch granules from the tubers, 80kg of the harvested fresh cassava tubers were peeled and washed twice to remove dirt and earth. The peeled cassava tubers were re-weighed. 75kg of the peeled tubers was grated manually using a locally made grater to form mash. Clean tap water was added to the mash and stirred. The mixture was sieved off using a mash of 0.25vm in the water to remove the long fibres. The filtrate was allowed to sediment for two hours, the supernatant was then decanted, esterifies to deodourize it and dried at normal temperature of 300C under the sun for 3 days. Another batch was dried at 550C in the oven. The laundry starch extracted was whitish and powdery in nature.

The comparism of the physical chemical characteristics of local and the imported laundry starch such as the colour, crispness and easy flow ironing was found out to be the same. The starch when applied to the fabric and ironed was very smooth, this therefore recommends that good patronage will lead to the emergence of small scale industries which will give employment to many jobless youths and equally generate revenue for the country.


TABLE OF CONTENT

Title page

Dedication

Acknowledgement

Abstract

Table of content

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Carbohydrate

1.2 Nature of laundry starch

1.3 Aims and objectives of study

1.4 Statement of problem

1.5 Hypothesis

1.6 Significances of study

1.7 Limitations of work

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

CHAPTER THREE

MATERIAL FOR THE PRODUCTION

3.1 Materials

3.2 Method

3.3 Chart for cassava starch processing

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Result

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 Discussion/Recommendations

5.1 Conclusion

Reference

A STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF REPORTED CASES OF SEXUALLY TRANSMITED DISEASE IN THE FEDERAL MEDICAL CENTRE UMUAHIA (F.M.C) FROM 1995 – 2004

The entire project work/study talks about the full meaning of the STDS. The causes of the sexually transmitted diseases were found out to be virus and bacteria which can be transmitted from one person to another predominantly through sexual contact. The scope of the study was also special and federal medical center Umuahia (FMC) was used as a case study. One of the studies carried out by Dr. A.U. Mbanuso at the Federal Medical center Umuahia 1990 – 1993. His result showed that the commest and most ducally sexual transmitted disease was HIV/AIDS and Syphilis.



Furthermore, from the designed questionnaire we found out that many people have become aware of the extend of STDS. For the data collection used was a secondary data. The population size in this reported cases of the sexually transmitted diseases under study from 1995 – 2004 the result after study will be used to generalize for the entire population.

The major statistical model employed in the analysis of the data collection was chi-square which was used to the age group and sex. The test hypothesis for the age group shows the X2 cal > X2 tab. Therefore we reject H0: and conclude that the client rate is not dependent of the age. There the test of hypothesis for the sex group shows that X2 cul > X2 tab. Therefore, we reject H0: and conclude that the sexually transmitted diseases under study are not dependent of sex.

INTRODUCTION

Sexually transmitted diseases, which is popularly known as STDS, and its effect is now the talk of the day, town, and world wide, even in Nigeria. This disease is a very strong disease that is caused by virus. This virus enters the body through many means such as sexual intercourse, blood transfusion, parental transmission. The main work of this virus is to weaken the body mechanism known as Lymphocyte (White blood cell) making it possible for any disease which enters the body to attack even more them expected. Both the developed and the undeveloped countries of the world, it is a great problem medically their incidence are steady rising. From the available statistical data the evidence have been showing alarming rate of sexually transmitted diseases every day as mankind gets more civilized. The sexually transmitted diseases can be categorized into three: the first category are referred to as the first category are referred to as the first generation, these are gonorrhea, syphilis, and chancroid. The second generation includes hympho granuloma venereum and granuloma ingunale. The third generation which is Aids (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome). These sexually transmitted disease have become a major public health problem to most countries of the world, including Nigeria on the account of their frequency, their impact on maternal and infant health and their special consequences as well as their economic cost in terms of health expenditure and cost of productivity. It has a serious effect on pregnancy, and new borns are seriously affected which may lead to miscarriage, failure of development of new baby, blindness congenital defects etc. The implication in woman such as pekvic inflammatory disease ectopic pregnancy, infertility and chronic ill health are caused by sexual transmitted diseases where the incidence of undiagnosed or poor treated cases is very high.

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The disease, sexually transmitted disease (STDS) is an old strong disease that was discovered before the amalgamation of Nigeria in the year 1914 by a great medical scientist known as lordchester field, in the year 1985. this disease has killed very many paple, yet, as at that time people doesn’t believe it, not until a good number of research work was carried out in the laboratory and evidence showed that it is a communicable disease that can be contracted from one person to another through predominantly sexual contact; such as gonorrhea, syphilis enters the body veins through blood and weakens or makes the white blood cell known as lymphocyte inactive to attack the disease of the sexual transmitted disease and this deadly disease will dry the victim to the extent that you will be able to count the bones and extent that you will be able to count the bones and ribs of the patient. But some people are still doubting the existence of the deadly disease STDS while statistical data table shows that 7,548 people was a victim within the year of 1985 to 1990. But the recent data collected shows that 17,277 people were infected as it was recorded at the Federal Medical Centre Umuahia. In addition, the above collected data will help the masses to reduce the rate of sexual act and sexual promiscuity. The federal ministry of health warns that total abstinence and mutual fidelity remains the best protective measure for or against sexually transmitted disease (STDS) such as gonorrhea, syphilis etc. That is why the federal government supported the introduction of sex education and the use of condom as a program in most of our media, such as newspaper, radio, television etc. In order to educate the poor masses on the subject matter and how to avoid contacting the deadly disease (STDS).

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

The rapid spreading of these deadly diseases (STDS) does not mean that both the internal and external bodies’ even corporate organizations are not working to remedy the issue. But we should not unemphasize the problem facing the efforts. Some of this problems includes inadequate central surveillance system from which all of us will be getting the information that we carry and reply in our program, because what we get now in Nigeria is information that is fragment not reconcilable. Even when there is seeming different, there are not other third sources of reference to cross check. Here the problem of finance contributed to the collapse of the efforts been made. Take for instance, the latest inhibitors introduced by Hoffmann – LaRoche of the Switzerland Eortovase and Viracept cannot be obtained by poor countries like Nigeria.

We know that it will sound unbelievable even at the moment to some people mainly the youths of today that kept adamant on the warnings and dangers of being a prostitute, a homosexual, a Hetero Sexual and equally having unprotected sexual intercourse. All that the World Health Organization (WHO) had warned that partners should be truthful to themselves and take preventive measures.

1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

i. To know how far people have known about existence of the sexually transmitted disease.

ii. To know whether the rate at which male are infected is the same at which the females are infected.

iii. To recommend preventive measures on how to avoid contacting the sexually transmitted diseases and give appropriate treatment to avoid rapid spread of the deadly disease.

iv. To specify the age group that is mostly affected.

v. Finally, the objective of this study is in picking the types of sexually transmitted diseases under study one by one and uses statistical methods predicting what their incidence rate will be in the year 2005 and 2006.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The study has revealed that the awareness of the existence of sexual transmitted disease. Through this study, their causes, sources and mode of transmission have been have been highlighted. Having known all these a greater result can be achieved by embarking on the program against sexually transmitted disease, such as making use of condom as one of the preventive measures and total abstinence as another measure. Another important significance is that, the health standard of the people is improved, while the death effect and other consequences of sexually transmitted diseases are minimized by profiling good medical attention and the use of skilled practitioners.

Finally, by achieving all these goals, we can have a good social economic planning for the present and future generation.

1.5 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

The Federal Medical Centre Umuahia (FMC) is my scope of study. It has ten wards (10) two medical ward on each for male and female, two surgical wards one each for male and female, two surgical wards one each for male and female, maternity wards with eighty (80) beds, one ward with forty (40) beds for booked patients while the other is for unbooked patients. Other are the pediatrics ward with twenty (20) beds and a gynecological ward with fourty (40) beds. But my area of concentration is based on the steadily increase of the sexually transmitted diseases (STDS). And we are taking a more look at the four varieties of sexually transmitted diseases (STDS). And we are taking a more look at the four varieties of sexually transmitted disease (STDS) such as gonorrhea, syphilis, arthritis and Aids. This study is faced with a lot of limitations and some problems encountered din the project research must not be overlooked. Some problems as: problem of finance, a lot of expense was made on the process of collecting the data. Time factor is another problem that delays the collection of data.

In addition, the duplication of the data and the production of this project work also included. On this note I was to study records from the year 1995 – 2002. This further more confined to the statistical analysis only, which has to do with the incidence rate of the sexually transmitted disease under study as arranged or grouped into sex, age groups and years. There will also be some forecast or production of the type of sexually transmitted disease under study in a specifically year to come.

1.5 SCOPE AND LIMITATION

The Federal Medical Centre Umuahia (FMC) is my scope of study. It has ten wards (10) two medical wards (2) on each for male and female, two surgical wards (2) one each for male and female etc. But my area of concentration is based on the steady increase of the sexually transmitted diseases (STDS) such as Gonorrhea, syphilis, HIV/AIDS, Arthritis. This study is faced with a lot of limitations and some problems encountered in the project research must not be overlooked. Some problems are

i. Problem of finance

ii. Time factor while delays the collection of data

1.6 FOR THE HYPOTHESIS

i. The null hypothesis is that there is no difference between age group. This means that the incident rate of age group is the same. The alternative hypothesis is that the incident rate of age group differ which reconcile that the incident rate is not he same.

ii. The null hypothesis is also used for the incident rate sex that means that there is no difference between incident rate of sex then. The alternative hypothesis is that the incident rate of sex is differ which states that the incident rate of sex is not the same.

1.7 ASSUMPTIONS

i. That is an existence of sexually transmitted disease (STDS) virus

ii. Attempts on how to prevent or cure the sexually transmitted diseases (STDS) have been made.

iii. Maximum cooperation is needed from all and sundry.

1.8 DEFINITION OF TERMS

i. STDS: Sexually Transmitted Diseases

ii. AIDS: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

iii. HIV: Human Immunodeficiency Virus

iv. VIRUS: Any living thing that is smaller than

bacteria, that causes the spread of infections disease. It can only be seen with the use of microscope.

v. SEROLOGICAL TEST FOR HIV: Blood test

that allows the presence of anti bodies to HIV in the body to be dictated.

ABORTION: Removal of unwanted child out of her

mothers’ womb

IMPOTENCY: Inability of a man to impregnate a

woman due to the destruction of the manhood by sexually transmitted disease(s).

PRE – MARITAL SEX: Sex before marriage

RACE

EVALUATING BACTERIAL VAGINOSIS USING THE NUGENT SCORING SYSTEM

a
ABSTRACT



BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Bacterial vaginosis is the most common form of vaginal infection in women of reproductive age. It is a condition with diverse etiology and an important cause of morbidity in women of reproductive age. This study was carried out to determine the accuracy of using the Nugent scoring system as a means of diagnosing Bacterial vaginosis.

MATERIALS AND METHOD: The prospective study was conducted in Benin City, Edo state between July and September 2012 and included 67 women between the ages of 16 and 45 years. Specimens collected from the lateral wall of the vagina were subjected to Gram staining and the microscopic slides examined and the different morphotypes of bacteria quantified using the Nugent scoring system.

RESULTS: The age range was 16-45 years with a mean of 24.9 years. BV was diagnosed by the Nugent method in 13.4% of women with the highest prevalence found in the age group of 16-20 years. The relationship of a positive whiff test, presence of clue cells and a pH>4.5 with bacterial vaginosis was shown to be highly significant (p=0.0051, P=0.001, P=0.0077).

CONCLUSION: Nugent scoring system appears to be a reliable and convenient method for laboratory evaluation of cases of bacterial vaginosis.

KEYWORDS: Bacterial Vaginosis, Nugent’s score, Gram staining.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Vaginal bacteria communities are composed of mixtures of diverse species and the relative abundance of these species in part determine urogenital health and disease in women. It is generally acknowledged that vaginal bacterial communities predominated by Lactobacillus species are normal and healthy while communities predominated by other genera such as Gardnerella vaginalis are abnormal and unhealthy. This latter condition essentially describes a poorly understood syndrome known as Bacterial Vaginosis (BV).

The composition of vaginal flora is the focus of interest of recent investigation because of its importance to women’s reproductive organ and general health (Patta et al, 2008). The condition is although common but under diagnosed. This may be due to confusion over its microbial origin (O’Dowd et al., 1996). The vagina is a dynamic ecosystem that is balanced due to the interaction of factors of the native bacterial biota. In healthy adult women, the normal vaginal pH is < 4.5. The predominant species of lactobacilli maintain a low pH through their fermenting activity which protects the area against the invasion of undesirable microorganisms (Pascual et al., 2006). The acidic medium produced by Lactobacilli suppresses the growth of other microorganisms (Klebanoff et al., 1991). Clinically, malodorous vaginal discharge, especially a fishy odour is the most common symptom (Fluery, 1981). Various studies have found the prevalence of BV to range from 15 to 30 per cent in non pregnant women and up to 50 per cent in pregnant women (Nelson and Macones, 2002). Clinical studies have demonstrated an association of BV with adverse pregnancy outcomes, upper genital tract infections such as pelvic inflammatory disease, endometritis, post-gynaecologic surgery infections, cervicitis, urinary tract infections, cervical intraepithelial neoplasia, and increased risk of sexual acquisition of human immunodeficiency virus infection (Lanzafame, 2002). Given its high prevalence and association with obstetrical and gynaecological complications, detection of this entity in women is of paramount importance. Studies using cultivation methods have shown that women with bacterial vaginosis have loss of vaginal lactobacilli and concomitant overgrowth of anaerobic and facultative bacteria. Several bacteria have been implicated in bacterial vaginosis, such as Gardnerella vaginalis (Gardner and Duke, 1955) and Mobiluncus curtisii (Spiegel et al., 1983) but these species are also found in subjects who do not have bacterial vaginosis and thus are not specific markers for the disease (Spiegel, 1991). For this reason, bacterial cultivation of vaginal fluid has not proved useful for the diagnosis of bacterial vaginosis. Rather, clinical criteria or Gram’s staining of vaginal fluid is used for diagnosis. The clinical criteria of diagnosing BV is confirmed using the composite criteria described by Amsel et al in 2002 in which 3 or 4 of the following have to be present for diagnosis;

(1) A thin homogenous discharge.

(2) Elevated vaginal pH above 4.5

(3) Release of amines on addition of 10 percent potassium hydroxide solution to vaginal fluid.

(4) The presence of clue cells on wet mount.

However, Amsel criteria may not be adequate to diagnose patients, as approximately 50 percent of BV patients may be asymptomatic (Gregor et al., 2002). Further, there exists a continuum from normal lactobacillus dominated flora through “to severe BV” with an intermediate category which the Amsel criteria fail to recognize. Thus, grading the microbial flora seen in Gram-stained vaginal smears, especially the scoring criteria proposed by Nugent et al in 1991, as an alternative method has become useful as a diagnostic tool. In this system, large Gram-positive rods (Lactobacillus morphotypes), small Gram-negative to Gram-variable rods (Gardneralla vaginalis and Bacteroides morphotypes) and curved Gram negative rods (Mobiluncus species) are quantitated and a summation score is obtained. BV is not a new clinical condition rather it is an infection that is under recognized and misdiagnosed in developing countries including Nigeria. Due to this under recognition, most clinicians do not even recognize BV diagnosis as a routine laboratory investigation for females of child bearing age. This study was carried out to determine the accuracy of using the Nugent scoring system as a means of diagnosing BV.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is a disorder of the vaginal ecosystem characterized by a change in the vaginal flora from the normally predominant lactobacillus to one dominated by sialidase-enzyme-producing organisms including Gardnerella vaginalis, Mobiluncus spp., Prevotella bivia, Bacteroides spp., Peptostreptococcus spp., Ureaplasma urealyticum, and Mycoplasma hominis (Hills, 1993). Several studies have linked BV to an increased risk of acquisition of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) (Sewankambo et al., 1997, Taha et al., 1998) as well as a number of gynaecological complications (Faro et al., 1993). BV is a disordering of the chemical and biological balance of the normal flora. Lactobacillus species are the predominant bacteria in normal vaginal flora constituting the greatest percentage of total vaginal flora. Lactobacilli species present in the vaginal flora decreases vaginal pH by producing lactic acid and thus mediate the first line of protection against vaginal infection. In addition, hydrogen peroxide production by some lactobacillus species has been found to suppress the growth of many microbial organisms (Dickson et al., 2006).

BV is the most common cause of abnormal vaginal discharge in adult women. The prevalence of BV ranged between 10-30% in different population all over the world (Morws et al., 2001). Several investigations have been performed to identify one or several bacteria comprising the decisive pathogenic factor in the syndrome, but so far no specific bacteria have been implicated in causing BV. Rather, it seems that all these organisms may play a synergistic role in producing the symptoms of BV. The condition is although common especially in low settings but under diagnosed. This may be due to confusion over its complex polymicrobial nature (Hillier et al., 1992).

BV as a specific entity has been recognized since the 1950s and is characterized by an increased malodorous discharge. It is associated with marked changes in vaginal flora often described as a change in local vaginal ecology and a notable absence of inflammation, a reduction in LB species and an increase in Gardnerella vaginalis. Several anaerobic species including mobiluncus spp, Prevotella species and others such as Mycoplasma hominis have been described. The stimuli for these changes are very poorly understood. BV is common and recent works have heightened the importance of its recognition. The two most widely accepted methods for the diagnosis of bacterial vaginosis, Amsel’s composite criteria (Amsel et al., 1983) and Nugent’s Gram stain evaluation of bacterial morphotypes (Nugent et al., 1991) are not used sufficiently in routine practice (Langsford et al., 2001), mostly in low income countries. Although the diagnosis of BV by Amsel’s criteria is simple, it is relatively insensitive and not easily subjected to quality control, and the apparent complexity of the latter may have limited its routine application by clinical laboratories.

MICROBIOLOGY OF BV

Normal vaginal flora consist of both aerobic and anaerobic bacteria with Lactobacillus species being the predominant bacteria and accounting for greater than 95% of all bacteria present (Spiegel et al., 1980). Lactobacillus species are believed to provide defence against infection in part by maintaining an acid pH in the vagina and ensuring H2O2 is present in the genital environment. In contrast, BV is a polymicrobial syndrome resulting in a decreased concentration of Lactobacilli and an increase in pathogenic bacteria mainly anaerobes or microaerophilles. Gardnerella vaginalis is one of the main bacteria found in BV, but this can also be found on culture in approximately 50% of healthy women. Other organisms commonly associated with BV are Prevotella species, Mycoplasma hominis, and Mobiluncus species (Hillier, 1993). Overgrowth of these anaerobic organisms can cause an increase in pH from less than 4.5 to up to 7.0 [DTB, 1998; CEG, 2001].

PREVALENCE OF BV

BV is a common gynaecological condition, reported in 5–51% of women, depending on demographics and whether or not they are symptomatic (Mead, 1993). Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is the most common infective cause of vaginal infection. It is about twice as common as candidiasis (Joesoef and Schmid, 2005). The prevalence of BV is variable. About 14.2% of Nigerian women are affected by BV (Anukam et al., 2006). Various studies have found the prevalence of BV to range from 15 to 30 per cent in non pregnant women and up to 50 per cent in pregnant women (Nelson and Macones, 2002). In the united state, prevalence has been reported as 9% for general practice populations, 12% for women attending ante natal clinic and 28% for women attending termination of pregnancy clinics [HPA, 2002]. The prevalence of BV varies by race and ethnicity from 6% in Asians and 9% in whites to 16% in Hispanics and 23% in African Americans (Anderson et al., 1992).

FIG 1: COMPARING THE PREVALENCE OF BV AND OTHER VAGINAL INFECTIONS. (Andrea and Chaplain, 2011).

CA- Candida BV- Bacterial vaginosis TV- Trichomonas vaginalis CT-Chlamydia tracomatis GC- Gonococci

PREDISPOSING FACTORS TO BACTERIAL VAGINOSIS

The natural history of BV is unclear, as are the risk factors for its acquisition. It is not thought to be sexually transmitted as no causative microorganism has been found to be transmitted between partners. It can arise and remit spontaneously in sexually active and non-sexually active women [DTB, 1998; CEG, 2001; Joesoef and Schmid, 2005].Race has been identified as one potential risk factor as blacks have higher rates than whites (Morris et al., 2001, Goldenberg et al., 1996). It is unclear, however, if this discrepancy is due to racial differences in vaginal microbiology (Newton et al., 2001) or culturally mediated differences in vaginal-cleansing behaviours such as douching (Holzman et al., 2001). Other activities or behavior that can upset the normal balance of bacteria in the vagina and put a woman at increased risk include;

Multiple sex partners or a new sex partner: Data regarding the association between sexual activity and BV acquisition are contradictory. The link between sexual activity and bacterial vaginosis isn't entirely clear, increased frequency of sex, unprotected sex, and recent partner changes have also been reported to increase the risk of BV (Schwebke et al., 1999, Nilsson et al., 1997). It is also prevalent in women with a prior or current STD however the occurrence of BV may be the direct consequence of exposure to the infectious pathogen not the sexual behavior.

IUD use: Women who use an intrauterine device (IUD) for birth control have a higher risk of bacterial vaginosis.

Douching: The practice of rinsing out the vagina with water or a cleansing agent (douching) upsets the natural balance of the

HEAVY METAL CONTAMINATION OF WELL WATER

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Water is essential to all forms of life and make up 50-97% by weight of all plants and animal and about 70% of human body (Allan, 1995). Water is also a vital resource for agriculture, manufacturing, transportation. Despite its importance, water is the most poorly managed resource in the world (Chutter, 1998). The public health significance of water cannot be over emphasized. Many infectious diseases are transmitted by water through the fecal oral route. Diseases contacted through drinking water kills about 5million people annually and make 1/6th of the world population sickness (WHO, 2004). Water is vital for the existence of life and its importance in our daily life makes it imperative that thorough microbial, physico-chemical and heavy metal examination of water should be concluded on water used for various purposes to reduce the risks of water borne diseases emanation from such water. Portable water is the water that is free from disease–producing micro-organisms chemical substances that are dangerous to health (laminkera, 1999). In Nigeria, majority of the in the rural and urban area do not have access to portable water and therefore depend on well, stream and river water for domestic use. The bacterial and heavy metal content of well water in Nigeria have been reported to be unsatisfactory; with coliform count exceeding the recommendation by WHO (Edema et al; 2001). Water is the second important resource to human life after air. Man can survive longer without food than without water. Water is an important constituent of biotic community, it occurs naturally on land, underground, in the atmosphere and biomass (Narayanan, 2007). Water pollution should be a concern to every citizen because water accounts for about 70% of the weight of a human body, out of the estimated.

1,011 million km3 of the total water present on 400m3 is available for drinking, agricultural purposes, domestic and industrial uses. The rest of the water is locked up in ocean of salt underground.

These qualities of water and its effect are characterized by its physical, chemical and microbial properties (Narayanan, 2007).

The problem associated with chemical constituents of drinking water arises primarily from their ability to cause adverse health effects after prolonged period of exposure of a particular contaminant that have cumulative toxic properties such as heavy metals and substances that are carcinogenic (Uduma ,2014).

Heavy metals are chemical elements with a specific gravity (S.G) at least 5 times that of water. The specific gravity of water is I at 4oC. Some well known toxic metals with a specific gravity of 5 or more than that of water are cadmium

(8.65), iron (7.9) Lead (11.34) and mercury (13.546), (Lide, 1992).

Heavy metals are produced from varieties of natural and anthropogenic (man-made activities like mining, disposal of effluents from industries and indiscriminate use of fertilizers and pesticides in cultivation (Amman et al, 2002).

Investigation of the spatial distribution of levels of arsenic, lead and cadmium in Rivers, in kumasi (Ghana) revealed that most of the aquatic life have gone extinct due to the toxicity of the heaving metal to the aquatic organisms in the water (arpong et al; 2009).

In aquatic ecosystem, heavy metal pollution can result from atmosphere deposition of geological weathering or through the discharge of waster. Metals like CU, Fe, Mn, Ni and Zn are essential micronutrients for life processes in plants and micro organisms while other many metals like Cd, Cr and pb have no known physiological activity, but have been proved to be detrimental beyond certain levels (Marschner, 1995)

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Many androgenic activities have been going on almost at all points in obiagu, Enugu. Onu-Asata being the peak of them all is where many toxic chemicals are produced; by these activities, they are leached into the well water used in this area, which has prompted for this research works on the determination of heavy metal contamination of well water; heavy metals such as pb, Fe,Zn,Cu,Ni,Cd,Mn,Cr.

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

To determine the heavy metal contaminants such as pb, Fe, Zn, Cu, Ni, Cd, Mn,and Cr in well water sample collected from onu-asata, obiagu, Enugu.

To ascertain the level of heavy metals contaminants in the well water sample.

To educate the people using the water on the health impacts of the water depending on the level of heavy metals present in it.

1.4 SIGNIFICANT OF THE STUDY

The result of this research work would be useful in the determination of heavy metals in well water samples, it also would disclose the level of heavy metal contaminants in the well water sample collected from Onu –asata thereby creating awareness on the health implication of using the well water.

1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

Due to some financial constraints, this research work is limited to the determination of heavy metal contaminants such as Pb,Fe,Zn,Cu,Ni,Cd,Mn and Cr in Onu-asata well water.

AVAILABILITY AND EFFECTIVE USE OF LABORATORY EQUIPMENT AS DETERMINANT OF STUDENTS PERFORMANCE

ABSTRACT

This study was designed to examine effects of availability and use of laboratories on students’ performance in science subjects in community secondary schools. The study was conducted in six community secondary schools in Kinondoni municipality. The study examined the availability of laboratories, examine the use of laboratories, and assess the availability of science teachers, and science teachers ’perceptions how laboratories availability influence students’ performance in science subjects. The problem was that students’ performance in science subjects is appalling in community secondary schools. Survey research design was used and the study employed quantitative approaches where observation, checklist, school records and likert scales were used for data collection. The sample of the study included 6 heads of schools, 6 schools and 36 science teachers. The data were analyzed using frequency, percentages and ratio. Findings revealed that schools did not have laboratories; instead they had science rooms which lacked laboratory space. It was noted that apparatus and chemicals were either insufficient or absent in all sampled schools; instead schools improvised those equipment by using locally available materials in their environment. Experiments were done in large groups with little students. There was an acute shortage of science teachers. It was recommended that, policy makers need to ensure that students enrolment should match with the availability of laboratory facilities, more laboratory need to be built in schools and more science teachers be trained




CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Background to the Problem

This study dealt with an assessment of the effect of availability and use of laboratory on student performance in science subjects in Community Secondary school (CSS) in Nigeria. The science subjects involved in the study are Biology, Chemistry and Physics. The chapter comprises of the background, statement of the problem, purpose and objective of the study, research tasks and questions, significance of the study, delimitation of the study and conceptual framework.

A good system of education in any country must be effective on two fronts: First, the quantitative level is used to ensure access to education and quality in distribution and allocation of resources to various segments of the society, and second, on the qualitative level to ensure that the country produces the skills needed for rapid social and economic development (United Republic of Nigeria, 1995).The development of Universal Primary Education(UPE) in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has drawn widespread international support because of its perceived role in poverty reduction (United Nations 2008).

The expansion of secondary school education in developing countries is now seen as a major priority due to its importance in linking primary education to tertiary education and further professional development as well as its role in responding to the demands of globalization and its potential to build skills for transforming livelihoods (World Bank, 2005; Association of Development of Education in Africa, (ADEA), 2007 &African Human Development Department, (AHDD), 2007).

The challenges of education development in SSA at the beginning of the twenty first century are unprecedented. Faced with persistent gaps in coverage of primary schooling, almost all countries have launched major efforts to ensure that all children will have the opportunity to complete a primary education of acceptable quality (Mosha, 2012). At the same time, governments are committed to expand access to further learning. The Education Sector Development Programme (EDSP-2001) implementation of free primary education to achieve Education for All (EFA, 2000) goals and Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) has exerted pressure on government to expand chances for secondary education. The achievement of UPE has translated into greater demands on human resources for the education sector. This has resulted in increased demand for teachers, and graduate teachers in particular.

In response, the government of Nigeria launched the Secondary Education Development Plan attempting to expand secondary education (URT, 2004). The Ministry of Education and Vocational Training (MoEVT) provided guidelines for establishing new secondary schools whether privately or community owned. The educational inspectors used these criteria for assessing whether the new schools could be registered or not. One of the required facilities are two laboratories with furniture in each all school.

The government of Nigeria aimed at having at least one secondary school in each ward, and the number of community owned secondary schools increased remarkably from 1202 in 2004 to 3216 in 2010 (URT,2010). On the one hand, this increased number of secondary schools in the country is a great achievement. But on the other hand, it is a challenge for the government on how the increased number of schools and students maintains the quality of education. Despite the guidelines, most of these schools neither have proper laboratories nor laboratory equipment for conducting practical lessons for science subjects (Kibga, 2004, 2013). The main focus in this study was to examine the effects of availability and use of laboratories on student performance in science subjects at the ordinary level secondary education.

Expanding access, equity and improving quality and relevance at the same time are twin challenges faced by the secondary school education system throughout the developing countries (World Bank, 2005, Chimombo, 2005, Babaci& Geo-JaJa, 2011). After the implementation of SEDP, the increase of community secondary schools and the expansion of enrolment of students could not match with the demand for science teachers. Science teachers leading the demand in the year 2008 there were shortage of science subjects, shortage teachers in Biology subject was 3672 teachers which is equivalent to 71%, in Chemistry subject was 3705 teachers which was equivalent to 72% and in Physics was 5212 teachers which is equivalent to 75% (Omari, 2013). This situation does not give hope in the near future that secondary schools will have enough science teachers and student will be able to learn science as indicated in the syllabus. This implies that unless the government and other stakeholders find alternative ways of training more science teachers for secondary education, these few available teachers will not meet the demand of secondary education even with the current teaching and learning resources.

Various studies have been conducted on the problem relating to science education delivery in Nigerian secondary schools, in which availability and use of laboratories is highlighted (Chonjo, Osaki, Posi & Mrutu, 1996; Mafumiko, 1998; Chonjo & Welford 2001; Richard 2005, Kibga, 2004). These studies established that among the problems associated with science education delivery are lack of resources such as laboratories, equipment, apparatus, inadequate teachers and inadequacy of technical support in laboratory based teaching. This may cause schools not to properly play the role of delivering science education. Science teaching requires special approach in laboratories instruction skills, management skills and laboratory procedures such as handling of chemicals and repair of equipment. Furthermore, Kibga (2004) found that practical classes had no preliminary preparation done, so students wasted a lot of time to collect apparatus from laboratory store before setting experiments.

Since the examination of science subjects currently consists of two papers namely Paper 1 (theory oriented) and Paper 2 (practical), how these practical examinations can be done during exams as well as the teaching and learning process if laboratories are absent remains a question with no clear answer. There is a direct relationship between the availability and use of laboratories in schools on the one hand and the performance in science subjects examinations on the other. The performance in science subjects in ward secondary schools in Nigeria is dismal compared to those schools that have been around for a long time.

In this study the main focus is to investigate whether the availability or in-availability of laboratories in CSS has any link with the academic performance. Shortage of laboratories equipment in secondary schools in Nigeria has been increasingly recognized as an important barrier in improving the quality of science education (Ndabise, 2008).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The government of Nigeria took the initiative to establish community secondary schools in every ward. This initiative resulted in an expansion of education places that had not been observed before in secondary education. However, in spite of the massive expansion of secondary education, it is not clear whether this quantitative expansion was associated with the provision of adequate facilities, including laboratories. Although there are some criteria established for schools to be registered, such as availability of library, classrooms and two laboratories with furniture, among others, the availability and use of laboratory facilities in CSS does not seem to have been in accordance to laid down guidelines.

This follows the experienced reality where students’ performance in science subjects is appalling in CSS. The performance of students in science subjects for the year 2009, 2010, 2011, and 2012 for CSS has tended to be lower compared to performance in the same subjects in other schools. Such a scenario causes the need for a study to establish if performance of students in science subjects has any relationship with availability and use of laboratories. The government knows the importance of science in supporting sustainable development, that is why it insists on science and technology in its Education and Training Policy (ETP) (URT, 1995). Quality science education requires students to perform experiments with their own hands. The learning and practice of science cannot be achieved in the environment which does not give emphasis on practical and hands on activities in schools. Students are supposed to do both theory and practical learning activities. Nevertheless, since science is an activity based subject, its effective teaching and learning cannot be feasible unless it is enriched with practical activities. Practical activities must occupy greater part of the time allocated to science subjects than the chalk and talk method of teaching the theoretical aspects. This study therefore intended to assess the availability and effective use of laboratory equipment as determinant of student performance

1.3 Purpose and Objectives of the Study

General Objective is to examine the relationship between the availability and use of laboratories and students’ performance in community secondary schools in science subjects namely Biology, Chemistry and Physics. Specifically, the study was guided by the following specific objectives:

1. To assess the availability of laboratory facilities in community secondary schools.

2. To assess the use of laboratories in community secondary schools.

3. To assess how the availability of human resource influence performance in science subjects.

4. To explore science teachers’ perceptions on effects of availability or non-availability of laboratories on students’ performance.

1.4.Research Tasks and Questions

This study was guided by the following research tasks and questions

Research task 1: To determine the extent of availability of laboratories in the established Community Secondary schools in Nigeria.

Research Questions

1) To what extent are laboratories available in the ward schools established in Nigeria?

2) To what extent are laboratories in ward schools sufficient for conducting practical lessons?

Research task 2: To assess the extent to which laboratories are used in the teaching and learning of science subjects in ward schools

THE DETERMINATION OF THE ACTIVITIES AND SPECIFICITY OF ENZYMES IN FERMENTATION OF STARCH - FROM MAIZE

ABSTRACT

The Anatomy of this project write-up encompasses the ordinary look of enzymes as organic molecules, rather it sheds more light into the comprehensive view and determination of the catalytic and specific activity enzymes particularly- DIASTASE, MALTASE and ZYMASE can exploit in industrial application, also critically important is the selective ways of providing fundamental data which allows the society-particularly small-scale brewers to understand and exploit the chemistry of fermentation by enzymes. The method employed in this project involves three processes namely.

1.The preparation of the enzymes by fermentation

2.The preparation of the starch substrate from maize

3.The overall process development involving both the products of the 1st and 2nd processes. The results of the method and procedures employed in this project are. That enzyme activities in biochemical processes involves catalysis- through binding of the enzyme molecule and the substrates. Finally, all enzymes in fermentation of starch whose catalytic properties rely on their molecular structure and arrangement are stabilized by interactions between their constituents. This is conclusively evident in the chemistry of the fermentation process in starch which is later discussed and highlighted in this write-up.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page

Certification

Dedication

Acknowledgement

Abstract

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Background Information

1.2 Aim of the Study

1.3 Objectives of the Study

1.4 Significance of the Study

1.5 Statement of Problem

CHAPTER TWO

2.1 Literature Review

2.2 Chemistry of Fermentation

2.3 The Role of the Enzymes

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Materials and Methodology

3.1 Materials and equipments

3.2 Methodology and procedures

3.3 The Process Development

3.4 Preparation of the Enzymes by Fermentation

3.5 Preparation of the Starch Substrate from Maize

Flowchart representing the Overall Process Development

ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT OF SOME MEHTODS ADOTPED IN YOGHURT PRODUCTION

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Yoghurt is a fermented milk product, produced with a yoghurt starter culture which is a mixed culture of streptococcus thermophilus and lactobacillus bulgaricus in a 1:1 ratio. S thermophilus enjoys a faster growth than L hulgricus. It adds flavours and aroma to the yoghurt, though both organisms in association produces lactic acid but acetaldehyde and dimethyl propanol, the chief favour component of yoghurt is produced by L bulgaricus.
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Every producer be it private or public more especially profit making has objectives in mind to achieve, some of which are to sue a process/method that is convenient and hygienic for himself, workers and to the final consumer of his product (yoghurt).

Lack of research has landed many producers of yoghurt into confusion on the method and process of producing yoghurt, thereby producing a substandard yoghurt which may not meet the taste of the consumers like “mouth feel and appearance”. They need to know the various methods and different materials that are used in yoghurt which will improve its general quality.

Moreover whichever method that is chosen must be economical in all aspect, so that the producers will have some profit after calculating the cost and the products retail price will not be too much for the average consumer to afford.
1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

Many producers of yoghurt are confused on the methods and process of producing yoghurt, consequently, producing substandard yoghurt which may not meet the taste of the consumer.

However, this research work is aimed at developing appropriate process of producing yoghurts.

The research work is also aimed at solving the problems of different methods of processing yoghurt.

Also, it is aimed at assessing the economic aspect of the different methods of producing yoghurt which are economical in terms of the cost.
1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This project is important to all producers, students and researchers in food based discipline as it studies and assess different methods adopted in yoghurt production. It will help students and researchers to know the various materials used in the production of yoghurt which will improve its general quality.

This research work will also provide suitable methods for the production of yoghurt, which will be economical (to cover the cost of materials used for production).
1.4 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMS

Yoghurt production is very expensive and most of its methods are tedious.

Most yoghurt produced, cannot keep for a long time due to the inability of the producers to get the right materials fro the production of yoghurt.

The PH at which yoghurt is produced is also another problem, because if the right PH is not gotten and controlled and if it exceeds that PH level the taste will be too acidic and will not give that sour taste peculiar to yoghurt. Also PH above four (4) favours the growth of some microorganism such as coliforms, staphylococci, pseudomonas etc. These microorganisms can contaminate the milk, thereby making unfit for the consumers. In food processing we have garbage in garbage out which means that if you starts with a pour raw material you are equally coming out with pour finished product.
1.5 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

This project is limited in scope to the various methods of producing yoghurt; process development and economics implication of these methods, however, there are limiting factors such as money, time and the unwillingness of some manufacturers of yoghurt to reveal their process method and financial factors of the product.

Money is required to purchase the materials for the production of yoghurt.

Time is also a problem, as it is needed to carryout the research work or project